CuriousIntellect

Mummy Brown: A Pigment from the Grave - Discovery and Controversial Legacy

Mummy brown, also known as mummia, was a pigment made from ground-up human and animal mummies, primarily sourced from Egypt. Its rich, warm brown color, translucency, and unique texture made it a popular choice for artists from the 16th to the early 20th centuries, finding use in oil paintings, watercolors, and even pharmaceutical remedies. However, the ethical implications of using human remains as art material ultimately led to its demise.

Discovery and Rise to Popularity:

While the use of human remains wasn't entirely novel (consider the occasional use of ground bone for pigments like bone black), the widespread use of mummies as a pigment began in the 16th century. The growing trade in antiquities and mummified remains from Egypt made these materials relatively accessible.

The Alchemical Connection: The popularity of mummy brown was fueled, in part, by alchemical beliefs. Mummies were perceived to possess medicinal and even magical properties. They were believed to contain bitumen, a natural asphalt substance, thought to have preserving and healing qualities. The assumption that mummies were heavily imbued with this bitumen led to their use in various remedies, including ground mummy powder mixed into medicines.

A Chance Discovery for Artists: The potential of mummy remains as a pigment was likely a gradual discovery. Alchemists may have initially experimented with them, noting the rich brown color and its ability to be ground into a fine powder suitable for mixing with oils. Artists, always on the lookout for new pigments and tones, would have picked up on this potential.

Production and Quality: Mummy brown was produced by grinding mummified bodies into a fine powder. This process often involved separating the linen wrappings and selecting the most desirable parts. The quality of the pigment varied depending on the origin of the mummy, its age, and the amount of bitumen present. Generally, mummies from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, which had been naturally preserved by the arid desert climate, were preferred over later mummies treated with artificial resins that could affect the pigment's color and consistency.

Appreciation for its Properties: Artists valued mummy brown for several reasons:

Rich, Warm Color: It produced a unique, warm, translucent brown with a reddish undertone, unlike other brown pigments derived from earth or minerals.
Glazing Capabilities: Its translucency allowed artists to create rich, layered glazes, adding depth and luminosity to their paintings.
Drying Properties: It dried relatively quickly, making it suitable for various painting techniques.
Interesting Texture: The presence of bone fragments and other organic matter could give the pigment a slightly gritty texture, adding visual interest to the painting surface.

Prominent Use and Artistic Application:

Mummy brown was used by a wide range of artists, including:

Pre-Raphaelites: Artists like Edward Burne-Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti experimented with mummy brown, seeking to achieve the desired richness and depth in their colors.

Impressionists: While less documented, some Impressionist artists are believed to have used mummy brown in their palettes.

Various European Masters: Evidence suggests the pigment was also used in paintings by artists across Europe, from the Renaissance to the 19th century.

Mummy brown was especially favored for:

Underpainting: Creating warm underlayers to build up subsequent layers of color.

Shadows and Glazes: Adding depth and definition to shadows and creating rich, translucent glazes.

Flesh Tones: Used sparingly to add warmth and subtle variations to flesh tones in portraits.

Landscape Painting: Representing earthy tones, foliage, and creating atmospheric effects.

The Controversy and Ethical Dilemma:

Despite its popularity, the use of mummy brown raised ethical concerns almost from the start. The realization that the pigment was made from human remains gradually led to discomfort and disgust.

Dehumanization and Disrespect: The act of grinding up human remains for artistic purposes was seen as disrespectful to the deceased and a form of dehumanization. It raised questions about the sanctity of the human body and the appropriate treatment of the dead.

Moral Conflict: As knowledge of its composition spread, many artists and art patrons began to feel uneasy about using or owning paintings made with mummy brown. The knowledge that they were handling or displaying works containing human remains created a moral conflict.

The "End" of Mummy Brown: Stories abound about artists discovering the true origins of their pigment and being horrified. One famous anecdote involves the Pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Burne-Jones, who purportedly held a mock funeral for his tube of mummy brown after learning its source.

Diminishing Supply and "Faux" Mummy Brown: By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the ethical concerns, coupled with a dwindling supply of genuine mummies, led to a decline in the production and use of mummy brown. Many pigment manufacturers stopped producing it altogether, and some substituted it with similar-looking synthetic pigments, sometimes still marketed as "mummy brown" but without the actual human remains.

The Shift in Cultural Perception: Changing cultural perceptions of death and the growing importance of ethical considerations in art and science ultimately contributed to the demise of mummy brown. The rise of archaeology and Egyptology also likely influenced public perception, emphasizing the cultural and historical significance of mummies rather than their utility as raw materials.

Legacy:

The legacy of mummy brown is complex and multifaceted.

A Reminder of Ethical Considerations in Art: The story of mummy brown serves as a powerful reminder of the ethical considerations that can arise in art creation and consumption. It highlights the importance of being aware of the materials used in art and their potential social, environmental, and ethical implications.

A Glimpse into Historical Practices and Beliefs: The use of mummies as a pigment provides a fascinating insight into the historical practices and beliefs surrounding death, medicine, and art. It reflects the alchemical worldview that was prevalent in earlier centuries and the sometimes-utilitarian approach to human remains.

A Cautionary Tale of Exploitation and Cultural Sensitivity: The story of mummy brown also serves as a cautionary tale of exploitation and the need for cultural sensitivity. It underscores the importance of respecting cultural heritage and avoiding the use of historical artifacts in ways that are disrespectful or harmful.

A Lingering Presence in Museums and Collections: While genuine mummy brown pigment is no longer commercially produced, traces of it may still be found in paintings from the 16th to the early 20th centuries housed in museums and private collections. Its presence serves as a reminder of the pigment's unique history and controversial past.

In conclusion, mummy brown is more than just a pigment; it's a symbol of a bygone era, a testament to the evolving relationship between art, science, ethics, and cultural perceptions of death. Its story continues to spark debate and reflection on the moral responsibilities of artists and the ethical implications of using materials with complex and sometimes disturbing origins.

Of all the colours on an artist's palette throughout history, none has a more bizarre, macabre, and ethically fraught story than Mummy Brown. More than just a pigment, it was a literal concoction of history, chemistry, and human remains, and its journey from an apothecary's shelf to the canvases of esteemed masters reveals a great deal about shifting cultural attitudes towards science, history, and the dead.

Here is a detailed explanation of the discovery and controversial legacy of Mummy Brown.

Part I: The Ghoulish Origins - From Medicine to Pigment

The story of Mummy Brown doesn't begin in an artist's studio but in a doctor's cabinet.

1. Mummia as Medicine: From the Middle Ages through the 19th century, a substance known as mummia was a staple in European apothecaries. It was, quite literally, powder made from ground-up ancient Egyptian mummies. This practice stemmed from a series of misunderstandings.

The Bitumen Confusion: Ancient writers described the medicinal properties of bitumen, a natural asphalt found in the Dead Sea region. The Persian word for bitumen was mūmiyā. When Europeans saw the dark, resinous substances used by ancient Egyptians in the mummification process, they mistakenly believed it was the same medicinal bitumen.
A Cure-All: Convinced that the embalming material held powerful healing properties, they began importing Egyptian mummies, grinding them into a fine powder, and prescribing the resulting mummia for everything from headaches and bruises to epilepsy and stomach ulcers. It was a form of cannibalistic medicine, consumed in the belief it could cure the living.

2. The Leap to Pigment: The transition from medicine to paint was a logical, if gruesome, next step. Apothecaries and "colourmen" (the historical equivalent of art supply manufacturers) were often one and the same. Since they were already processing mummies for medicinal powder, it was a small leap to mix that powder with a binder like oil and sell it as a pigment.

The first documented use of Mummy Brown as a pigment dates to the 16th century, but its popularity soared from the 17th century onwards, reaching its absolute peak in the 19th century.

Part II: The Heyday of Mummy Brown - An Artist's Favourite

For over two centuries, Mummy Brown was a highly sought-after colour, prized by artists for its unique properties.

1. Composition and Artistic Qualities: Mummy Brown was made by grinding the entire mummified remains—flesh, bone, and the linen wrappings—and mixing it with a binder like linseed oil and a drying agent like myrrh or frankincense. The primary colouring agents were the bitumen and resins used in the embalming process.

Artists loved it for several reasons: * Rich, Warm Colour: It produced a beautiful, deep, and warm brown hue that was difficult to replicate with other materials. * Superb Transparency: It was an excellent glazing colour. When applied in thin layers, it allowed light to pass through to the colours underneath, creating a sense of depth and luminosity. This made it ideal for painting shadows, flesh tones, and rich, dark backgrounds. * Unique Texture: The presence of ground bone, muscle, and resin gave the paint a unique texture and working property that many artists found appealing.

2. Famous Users and "Egyptomania": The pigment's popularity coincided with the 19th-century "Egyptomania" that swept Europe following Napoleon's campaigns in Egypt. The influx of mummies and other artifacts made the raw material for the paint more readily available.

Notable artists who are believed to have used Mummy Brown include: * The Pre-Raphaelites: This British artistic brotherhood, known for their detailed and luminous paintings, were significant users. Artists like Edward Burne-Jones and Lawrence Alma-Tadema valued its rich, transparent qualities. * Eugène Delacroix: The French Romantic painter was known for his dramatic use of colour and shadow, and Mummy Brown would have been a perfect tool for his dramatic palettes. * Martin Drolling: His famous 1815 painting, L'Intérieur d'une cuisine (Interior of a Kitchen), is often cited as a prime example of the pigment's effective use in creating deep, lustrous shadows.

Part III: The Controversial Legacy - A Crisis of Conscience

The very thing that made Mummy Brown unique was also the source of its downfall. While many artists initially used it without fully considering its origin, a growing awareness of its composition led to a crisis of conscience.

1. The Ethical Revelation: The most famous anecdote illustrating this shift involves the Pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Burne-Jones. Upon being informed by his friend, Lawrence Alma-Tadema, that his favourite tube of brown paint was, in fact, made from the ground-up remains of ancient pharaohs, he was horrified. He reportedly retrieved the tube from his studio, took it out into his garden, and gave it a formal and respectful burial.

This story, whether entirely apocryphal or not, captures the dawning realization among artists that they were complicit in the desecration of the dead. The romance of using an "ancient" material gave way to the ghoulish reality of painting with a person.

2. The Macabre Reality and Colonial Attitudes: The controversy surrounding Mummy Brown is deeply tied to colonial attitudes. The practice involved: * Desecration: The large-scale exhumation and destruction of ancient tombs for profit. * Commodification of Human Remains: The treatment of Egyptian bodies not as human ancestors but as a raw, industrial resource, no different from minerals or plants. * Lack of Authenticity: The demand for mummies was so high that forgers would create counterfeit mummies using the bodies of recently deceased criminals or enslaved people, embalming them with bitumen, and selling them to European traders. An artist could never be sure if their pigment was from a 3,000-year-old priest or a 19th-century vagrant.

3. Practical Problems: Beyond the ethical nightmare, Mummy Brown was also a technically flawed pigment. The bitumen content never fully dried, making the paint unstable over time. It was known to be prone to cracking, fading, and darkening, making it a poor choice for archival purposes. The quality was also wildly inconsistent; the colour varied depending on the specific mummy, its age, and the embalming materials used.

Part IV: The Decline and Disappearance

By the early 20th century, Mummy Brown was rapidly falling out of favour. The combination of ethical revulsion and its unreliability as a pigment led artists to seek alternatives.

The final nail in its coffin was a simple matter of supply and demand. The manufacturer C. Roberson & Co. was one of the last major suppliers of the pigment. In 1964, the company's managing director made a now-famous announcement to a curious caller: they had officially run out of mummies. He explained they had one last Egyptian mummy in their London shop but would not consider grinding it up. With that, the commercial production of genuine Mummy Brown effectively ended.

Conclusion: Mummy Brown Today

Today, no artist uses genuine Mummy Brown. The tubes of paint labeled "Mummy Brown" or "Mummy" in modern art supply stores are merely marketing names for a hue. They are created using a mixture of synthetic iron oxides, clays, and other minerals to replicate the historical colour, but they contain no human remains.

The legacy of Mummy Brown is a powerful and unsettling one. It stands as a stark reminder of a time when the lines between science, art, and desecration were disturbingly blurred. It is a cautionary tale about the origins of our materials and the colonial mindset that commodified not just artifacts, but the very people who created them. In the end, Mummy Brown remains one of art history's most fascinating and disturbing footnotes—a beautiful colour born from a truly horrifying source.

The discovery and controversial legacy of the pigment known as mummy brown.